What is Hindutva?
Hindu nationalism, also known as Hindutva, is an increasingly popular ideological and political movement in India. Although India is a secular democracy with a Hindu majority, Hindutva is distinct from Hinduism. As the Guardian have explained: “Hindu nationalism is a political ideology that dates back to the 19th century. It encompassed a broad range of groups but at its core is a belief that Indian national identity and culture are inseparable from the Hindu religion.”
As Paul Marshall at the Hudson Institute has noted, “Hindutva ideology can be distinguished from Hinduism itself. It demands neither a theocratic state nor Hinduism as a state ‘religion’. It is [a] national-cultural project, rather than ‘religious’ in the strictly doctrinal sense used in the West”. This is to say that Hindutva demands that the national culture of India be based on the Hindu religion, and that societal values reflect those of the Hindu religion.
While the Hindutva movement has existed for a century, it’s had a modern resurgence and gained mainstream traction in India, as well as with some Indian diaspora overseas, after Narendra Modi’s election win in 2014. Modi’s political party, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), is known for promoting policies that reinforce Hindu supremacy. The Australian Institute of International Affairs has claimed that “Since the Narendra Modi-led BJP government has taken control of the country, the secular democratic Indian government has been increasingly converging with Hindu nationalism, incorporating an extremist approach to Indian society and order.” They also note that the BJP “seeks an exclusive homeland for Hindus”, which is often referred to as the “Hindu Rashtra” (literally: Hindu Nation).
Religious and ethnic minorities in India, as well as those who don’t hold similar nationalistic beliefs supporting the creation of a Hindu Rashtra, have been marginalized by the recent popularity of Hindu Nationalism. This briefing will explore how some advocates of Hindutva use online narratives to justify hate speech, discrimination, and Hindu supremacy.
A brief history of Hindutva:
The term ‘Hindutva’ (meaning Hindu-ness) was first coined in 1923 by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, a law student in London. The term first appeared in his book Essentials of Hindutva, which he wrote while imprisoned in the Andaman Islands.
According to the Encylopaedia Britannica, Savarkar “sought to define Indian culture as a manifestation of Hindu values rooted in the Indian subcontinent”. The Essentials of Hindutva would become the launching pad for modern-day Hindu nationalism. An excerpt from the book reads:
”Nothing can weld peoples into a nation and nations into a state as the pressure of a common foe. Hatred separates as well as unites.”
In Sanskrit, Bharat means the Indian subcontinent, and varsha means country. Modern-day Hindu nationalists often prefer to embrace “Bharat” instead of “India” because it aligns with their anti-colonial, Hindu-first vision and nationalist politics, which attempt to erase any secular associations with the name and attach a Hindutva identity.
Savarkar’s tenets would inspire the creation of what is now one of India’s biggest volunteer groups with over 5 million members. The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) was founded in 1925 as a response to British colonial rule, the non-violent resistance led by Gandhi, and rioting between Hindus and Muslims. Members were recruited as uniformed volunteers in the RSS, prioritising military-like discipline and Hindu scripture.
The partition of India in 1947 led to mass violence between Hindus and Muslims, in which Hindu nationalists blamed Muslims and Gandhi for the division. In 1948, a former RSS member assassinated Gandhi after being influenced by Hindutva ideology. This resulted in a government crackdown and temporary ban of the RSS.
The BJP, one of the two major political parties in India alongside the Congress Party, was established in 1980 after the collapse of the Bharatiya Janata Sangh, which served as the political arm of the RSS. Led by Narendra Modi, the BJP has been the ruling party of India since 2014.
Indian Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, a member of the RSS, performing the RSS salute.
Modi honoring Vinayak Savarkar in 2015.
Support for the party and Hindu nationalism went mainstream due to its stance on the Ram Janmabhoomi movement, also known as the Ram Temple Movement. The movement centers around a dispute over the 19th-century Babri Mosque in Ayodhya Uttar Pradesh, standing on the site of what many Hindus believe to be the birthplace of the Hindu deity Rama. With Hindu-Muslim tensions rising, the mosque was demolished in 1992 by what the BBC describes as “riotous Hindu nationalists”.
In 2019, the Supreme Court ruled in favour of Hindus gaining control of the land. The temple was constructed and eventually opened in 2024. This is seen as one of BJP’s biggest victories and a victory for Hindutva.
Hindutva’s ties to white supremacy and Nazism:
Hindutva ideology has been accused of seeking religious, cultural, and racial supremacy by envisioning India as a Hindu-only nation, excluding Muslims and other minorities. Adherants of Hindutva typically portray Hindus as the true natives while labeling Muslims and other minority groups as invaders.
As the Guardian have explained,
“The Hindutva ideology has been associated with rightwing extremism and fascism due to the purist racial elements of the movement and its association with intolerance of minorities, in particular anti-Muslim sentiment and violence in India, which is 80% Hindu and 14% Muslim.”
A highly cited journal paper argues that the “Hindutva project currently under way in India is a modern, indigenised version of fascism”. The paper also refers to this ideology leading many to adopt a “nazi conscience”, with reference to Claudia Koonz’s 2003 work on Nazism which argues that a sense of moral duty towards one’s own race can play a major role in facilitating facism.
M.S. Golwalkar and the RSS
M.S. Golwalkar, the second RSS chief, modelled the organisation after paramilitary groups like Hitler’s Brownshirts, also known as the SA. In 1939 he wrote in his book Our Nationhood Defined praising Nazi Germany’s approach to Jews, arguing that India should treat Muslims the same way, declaring non-Hindus as inferior and “foreign”:
“To keep up the purity of the Race and its culture, Germany shocked the world by her purging the country of the Semitic Races—the Jews […] “Race pride at its highest has been manifested here. Germany has also shown how well-nigh impossible it is for Races and cultures, having differences going to the root, to be assimilated into one united whole, a good lesson for us in Hindusthan to learn and profit by.”
Golwalker also praises Nazi Germany’s treatment of Jews in his book Bunch of Thoughts which is a compilation of his speeches published in 1966. While RSS members try to distance themselves from Golwalker’s admiration of the Nazis, they have still been accused of operating as a militant group, influencing India’s politics and culture with authoritarian and supremacist ideals.
What narratives are being used by Hindutva? (Examples)
Villainising Muslims:
Some Hindu Nationalists are furthering Anti Muslim hate worldwide. Aside from the common Islamaphobic tropes such as muslim men being barbaric, they are also denying muslims their Indianness.
This cartoon, posted on X by a Hindu nationalist account on International Women’s Day, depicts Muslim men as predators harassing Hindu women. The Muslim man is portrayed using a stereotypical caricature—dark-skinned, bearded, and wearing a green kurta, a color associated with the Pakistani flag. Meanwhile, the light-skinned Hindu woman in traditional attire is shown fighting back, physically attacking him as punishment for harassment. This reinforces a Hindutva narrative that frames Muslim men as threats and Hindu women as victims, fueling anti-Muslim sentiment.
This cartoon on X is another example of an Islamophobic caricature of a Muslim man. It depicts a dark-skinned, bearded Muslim as scheming and violent toward a light-skinned Hindu, reinforcing racism and colourism along with stereotyping Muslim men as violent and predatory. The cartoon suggests that Indian Muslims are dishonest and untrustworthy, implying that they remain in India only for personal gain and should have migrated to Pakistan during the Partition in 1947. It also conveys the idea that Muslims had the opportunity to separate from Hindus when Pakistan was created but chose to stay in India because it is a more developed and better country than Pakistan.
This post, made by an X account dedicated to “stopping Hindu hate”, labels Muslims as separatists and questions their loyalty to India. It promotes the idea that being Indian is exclusive to Hindus, effectively excluding Muslims from Indian society. Posts like this intensify divisions between Indian Hindus and Muslims by reinforcing the narrative that Muslims do not truly belong in India. The phrase “From Jinnah to today” references the Partition of India and the creation of Pakistan in 1947. It alludes to Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the leader of the All India Muslim League and the founder of Pakistan, suggesting that Indian Muslims continue to follow a separatist mindset.
Anti-Pakistani hate
According to the Guardian, “The mainstreaming of Hindutva politics has led to a widespread yet unfounded narrative that Hindus in India are under threat from Muslims”. This has led to hate towards India’s Muslim majority neighbouring country, Pakistan.
In the Instagram post below, of a Pakistani documenting their experience of Mumbai Airport, the commenters have deemed them a threat to the level of security in India, comparing them to terrorists because they come from Pakistan.
The Facebook commenter below uses nationalism to contrast India with Pakistan, highlighting India’s advancements in science and technology while portraying Pakistan as underdeveloped and less civilized. They also suggest that Pakistanis support terrorism, reinforcing the stereotype that Muslims are inherently violent or terror-loving.
Another Facebook commenter asserts the superiority of Hindu culture and religion over Islam and its influence on Pakistani culture. They depict Hindus as naturally smarter and more hardworking, crediting Hindu culture for achievements in temple architecture.
The commenter attributes Pakistan’s perceived underdevelopment to the absence of Hindus after Partition in 1947, claiming Hindus are inherently superior due to “Dharma”—a Sanskrit term meaning decree or duty, likely referring to the eternal responsibilities of Hindus.
They further separate Pakistanis from the Indian subcontinent by labeling Islam an “Arab” religion, implying that Pakistanis are disconnected from India’s cultural heritage. The comment also associates Islam and Arabs with violence and slavery, contrasting this with Hindu values of duty and charity while ignoring similar Islamic teachings. Additionally, it suggests that Pakistanis are linked to Muslim Mughal emperors, framing them as responsible for the “Islamization” of the region.
The case for a Hindu Rashtra: Hinduism is under threat
Putting the blame on Islam and secularism reinforces Hindu victimhood, a key element of Hindutva ideology that allows followers to justify the oppression of minorities and assert Hindu dominance over society.
The comments below show that, despite Hindus making up an overwhelming majority of India’s population of 1.4 billion, Hindu nationalists feel that the 211 million Muslims in the nation are a threat to Hindu cultural and religious hegemony, and often resort to claims that there are too many Muslims in India for them to be considered a minority.
The two comments translated from Hindi to English read:
“Then what does the minority tag stand for? See if they are ready to give it up.”
“It shows Muslims are not in danger in India and Hindus are an extremely tolerant group.”
This post on X argues that Hindus need a safe space free from anti-Hindu persecution, primarily from Muslims, who are portrayed as “barbarians.” The user justifies the need for a Hindu ethnostate by claiming that Hindus have faced 1,200 years of persecution and require protection.
The poster asserts that India belongs to Hindus, framing the land as “Punya Bhoomi” (the holy land) and, therefore, rightfully theirs, while excluding millions of non-Hindus who have lived in India for centuries.
The term “Bharat” is used instead of “India”, reflecting Hindu nationalist preference due to its roots in Hindu scriptures and as a rejection of India’s colonial identity. By emphasizing the spiritual and cultural connection Hindus have to the land, the post prioritises Hindu identity while reinforcing the idea that non-Hindus are outsiders in India.
The Reddit comment below was on the r/Indian_Conservative subreddit under a post about Christians in northeast India making anti-Hindu remarks. In response, the commentator claims that “newly converted Christians” are “brainwashed on Sundays in church and told that the Hindu is their biggest enemy”, and that soon they will “gain numbers and start physical violence”. This user, therefore, views Christianity’s presence as a threat to Hinduism, which demonstrates the way in which Hindu nationalism can vilify and promote hatred towards other religions.
Despite his role in India’s independence and being widely recognised as the “father of the nation”, some Hindu nationalists view social activist Mahatma Gandhi negatively because he represents secularism, nonviolence, and Hindu-Muslim unity, which they see as an obstacle to achieving a Hindu Rashtra.
While many Hindu nationalists see Muslims as a significant threat to their vision of a Hindu Rashtra, Hindus who are more secular are also seen as an obstacle to their goals. In the Instagram post below, the perceived threat of secularism means that even Hindus can be labeled anti-Hindu if they criticize Hindutva. This mirrors how white scholars who challenge white supremacy are often accused of self-loathing or betraying their own race. The post also mirrors the trend of right-wing influencers and pundits demonising mainstream media, pop culture, and public figures for having an opposing agenda to them.
Hindu supremacy and “Akhand Bharat”:
While making India a Hindu Rashtra is the ultimate goal of the Hindutva movement, some go as far as wanting the entire south asian subcontinent to be recognised as a single nation under India. The countries proposed in the vision for “Akhand Bharat,” meaning a reunified India, include neighbouring countries Bangladesh and Pakistan, as well as Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, and sometimes Myanmar, Nepal, and Tibet.
This X post proposes that the city and region of Chittagong in the neighbouring country of Bangladesh become part of India because it borders the Indian region of Mizoram.
The Facebook comment below glorifies the idea of merging Muslim-majority Pakistan and Bangladesh into a unified Hindu India, promoting Hindu cultural and religious dominance, upholding Hindu ancestry as superior, and reinforcing Hindu hegemony. The commenter also weaponizes the treatment of Hindus by Muslims in the neighbouring country Bangladesh as a shield against criticism of Hindu nationalism. Furthermore, the comment attempts to isolate Sikhs from their Indian identity, suggesting they harbor anti-Hindu sentiments. They claim that Sikh gurus or religious leaders are rejecting their Hindu origins, commonly referred to as “Sanatana Dharma.”
Distorting history: Aurangzeb and “Muslim invaders”
The rise of the Hindutva movement has led to increased misinformation about history and current events. The Mughal Empire was a Muslim Dynasty that reigned over India from the 16th to the 18th centuries. According to the Institute for Strategic Dialogue, some Hindu Nationalists view this period as “a historic stain”, and view modern-day Muslims as “heirs to a Mughal tradition of Islamic domination, oppression and emasculation.”
Aurangzeb is a Muslim Mughal emperor who ruled India from 1658 to 1707. His legacy remains debated among historians, as many of his policies and actions—particularly those affecting Hindus—are seen as oppressive, making him a highly controversial figure.
Hindu nationalists often use Aurangzeb’s rule, along with that of other Mughal emperors, to portray Hindus as the true natives of India, arguing that Muslim rulers were foreign invaders. Some Hindu nationalist politicians frequently mention Aurangzeb to suggest that Muslims are inherently violent like him and that they pose a threat to Hindus by sharing his so-called “anti-Hindu” ideology.
The following video posted on X shows BJP politician and Hindu monk Yogi Adityanath referring to Muslims as “descendants of Aurangzeb.” He claims that their poverty is a form of karma for their ancestors’ actions against Hindus, such as demolishing temples (mandirs) and disrespecting Hinduism (Sanatan Dharma).
Conclusion: Hindutva is a global threat
The promotion in Hindutva ideology of religious supremacy, authoritarianism, and ethnic exclusion is a threat to democracy and could bring about an age of fascism in India. The threat of Hindutva is also present beyond the borders of India. As Paul Marshall noted, “In recent years, there have been attempts to mobilize Indian émigrés, perhaps the largest diaspora in the world, in support of Hindutva goals”. Marshall notes in his article incidents in Australia, New Zealand, the UK, and the USA which range from mobilising Hindutva based hate speech in elections to efforts to silence academics critical of Hindutva ideology.
The Virat Hindustan Sangam (VHS) is a right-wing Indian cultural organization founded in 2015 by what the HuffPost describes as “one of the most vocal proponents of Hindu nationalism”, Subramanian Swamy. It aims to “pave way for a Hindu Renaissance” by educating young people on issues aligned with Hindu nationalism.
This article has been written by an OHPI volunteer. OHPI considers an analysis of the Hindutva ideology and its role in hate speech an important topic related to online hate speech. Concerns related to Hindutva ideology, and specifically its role in promoting hate speech, must never lead to racism against Indian people, those of Indian origin, or against those of Hindu faith.